Saturday, 14 May 2011

Belief in God is part of human nature - Oxford study

Humans are naturally predisposed to believe in gods and life after death, according to a major three-year international study.

By Tim Ross, Religious Affairs Editor 8:17PM BST 12 May 2011

Led by two academics at Oxford University, the £1.9 million study found that human thought processes were “rooted” to religious concepts. But people living in cities in highly developed countries were less likely to hold religious beliefs than those living a more rural way of life, the researchers found.

The project involved 57 academics in 20 countries around the world, and spanned disciplines including anthropology, psychology, and philosophy. It set out to establish whether belief in divine beings and an afterlife were ideas simply learned from society or integral to human nature.

One of the studies, from Oxford, concluded that children below the age of five found it easier to believe in some “superhuman” properties than to understand human limitations. Children were asked whether their mother would know the contents of a closed box. Three-year-olds believed that their mother and God would always know the contents, but by the age of four, children start to understand that their mothers were not omniscient.

Separate research from China suggested that people across different cultures instinctively believed that some part of their mind, soul or spirit lived on after death. The co-director of the project, Professor Roger Trigg, from the University of Oxford, said the research showed that religion was “not just something for a peculiar few to do on Sundays instead of playing golf. We have gathered a body of evidence that suggests that religion is a common fact of human nature across different societies. This suggests that attempts to suppress religion are likely to be short-lived as human thought seems to be rooted to religious concepts, such as the existence of supernatural agents or gods, and the possibility of an afterlife or pre-life.”

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/8510711/Belief-in-God-is-part-of-human-nature-Oxford-study.html

Monday, 9 May 2011

Scientist says evil can be treated

Sat May 7, 2011 3:2PM

A Cambridge University scientist says evil is a lack of empathy which can be measured and monitored and is susceptible to education and treatment.

"I'm not satisfied with the term 'evil'," Reuters quoted Cambridge University psychology and psychiatry professor Simon Baron-Cohen as saying.

"We've inherited this word... and we use it to express our abhorrence when people do awful things, usually acts of cruelty, but I don't think it's anything more than another word for doing something bad,” he added, saying that “we need a new theory of human cruelty.”

In his recent book Zero Degrees of Empathy, Baron-Cohen suggests a rebranding of evil and defining it in terms of lack of empathy.

Director of the Autism Research Center at Cambridge defines empathy in two parts; as the drive to identify other people's thoughts and feelings, and the drive to respond appropriately to those thoughts and feelings.

According to Baron-Cohen, if people fully use their capability to empathize many conflicts in families and society will be resolved.

"If you think about conflict resolution at the moment, usually we are dependent on diplomatic channels, legal frameworks, or military methods,” he said.

“But all those things operate at a very abstract level and they don't seem to get us very far.

"Empathy is about two people -- two people meeting, getting to know each other and tuning in to what the other person is thinking and feeling."

One of the world's top experts in autism and developmental psychopathology, Baron-Cohen cites at least ten brain regions which make up what he calls the "empathy circuit."

When people hurt others, parts of that circuit are malfunctioning. He also sets out an "empathy spectrum" ranging from zero to six degrees of empathy, and an "empathy quotient" test, which ranks people along that spectrum.

Baron-Cohen says people are in the middle of the spectrum, with a few particularly attuned and highly empathetic people at the top end.

He says those who fall at the bottom end of the scale should not be labeled evil, but should rather be seen as sick or "disabled," who need to be helped with their empathy deficiency.

"I try to keep an open mind. I would never want to say a person is beyond help," he says. "Empathy is a skill like any other human skill -- and if you get a chance to practice, you can get better at it."

http://www.presstv.ir/detail/178720.html

Friday, 29 April 2011

29 April 2011 Last updated at 02:33

Our brains react differently to others depending on how we view their social status, researchers say. The Current Biology study found those who see themselves as being of a high status display more brain activity with those they think are equally elevated. The researchers said behaviour was determined by how people saw those around them.

A British expert said first evaluations were crucial in determining how individuals related to each other. It was already known from other studies that monkeys behave this way; changing behaviour dependent on how they perceived the other animal's position in the troop. The 23 participants, who had varying levels of social status, were shown information about someone of higher status and information about someone of lower status.

The team used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure activity in the ventral striatum, part of the brain's reward system. People who viewed themselves as having a higher subjective socioeconomic status displayed greater brain activity in response to other high-ranked individuals, while those with lower status have a greater response to other low-status individuals.

First evaluations

Dr Caroline Zink, of the US National Institute of Mental Health, who led the study, said: "The way we interact with and behave around other people is often determined by their social status relative to our own, and therefore information regarding social status is very valuable to us. "Interestingly, the value we assign to information about someone's particular status seems to depend on our own." She added that socioeconomic status is not based solely on money, but can also include factors such as accomplishments and habits.

Music 'releases mood-enhancing chemical in the brain'

By Sonya McGilchrist Health reporter, BBC News

Music releases a chemical in the brain that has a key role in setting good moods, a study has suggested.

The study, reported in Nature Neuroscience, found that the chemical was released at moments of peak enjoyment.
Researchers from McGill University in Montreal said it was the first time that the chemical - called dopamine - had been tested in response to music.
Dopamine increases in response to other stimuli such as food and money.
It is known to produce a feel-good state in response to certain tangible stimulants - from eating sweets to taking cocaine.
Dopamine is also associated with less tangible stimuli - such as being in love.
In this study, levels of dopamine were found to be up to 9% higher when volunteers were listening to music they enjoyed.
The report authors say it's significant in proving that humans obtain pleasure from music - an abstract reward - that is comparable with the pleasure obtained from more basic biological stimuli.
Music psychologist, Dr Vicky Williamson from Goldsmiths College, University of London welcomed the paper. She said the research didn't answer why music was so important to humans - but proved that it was.
"This paper shows that music is inextricably linked with our deepest reward systems."

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-12135590

Scientists find way to wipe out painful memories

by Danny Buckland, Daily Mirror 29/04/2011

It sounds like something from a science fiction movie. But researchers reckon they have found a way to erase painful memories and post-traumatic stress. They discovered a link between a protein called PKM and recollections of disturbing incidents.

By targeting the specific brain circuit which holds the tormenting memory they believe they could weaken it or wipe it out. The incredible study paves the way for treatment for war veterans and victims of horrific attacks. It may also help drug addicts and people with long-term memory disorders such as Alzheimer’s.

Professor David Glanzman, the study’s senior author, said: “I think it will be feasible."

Read more: http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/health-news/2011/04/29/scientists-fiind-way-to-wipe-out-painful-memories-115875-23092965/#ixzz1Ktvduclf

Thursday, 21 April 2011

‘ANXIETY PROTEIN’ THAT HOLDS KEY TO A CURE FOR STRESS

The British team has found that the brain releases an “anxiety protein” when exposed to stress

Thursday April 21,2011

By Victoria Fletcher Health Editor

SCIENTISTS have made a breakthrough in their understanding of stress.

It could lead to new treatments for the one in three people who suffer from stress disorders and depression. And it could help to explain why some people seem to suffer from anxiety more easily than others.

The British team has found that the brain releases an “anxiety protein” when exposed to stress. Levels of this protein neuropsin appear to dictate how we react to such situations. The researchers believe that targeting it or the gene that produces it could manipulate how we respond to stress and people with conditions it causes. In severe cases stress can lead to long term damage, problems with depression and post-traumatic stress.

Lead scientist Dr Robert Pawlak, from the University of Leicester, said: “Stress-related disorders affect a large percentage of the population and generate an enormous personal, social and economic impact. It was previously known that certain individuals are more susceptible to detrimental effects of stress than others. Although the majority of us experience traumatic events, only some develop stress-associated psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety or post-traumatic stress disorder. The reasons for this were not clear.”

The research, reported in the journal Nature, showed that a part of the brain that controls emotional responses, called the amygdala, reacts to stress by boosting levels of neuropsin. This in turn triggers a series of chemical events that causes the amygdala to increase activity. Neuropsin interacted with two cell membrane proteins to activate a specific gene that regulates stress response. Further work revealed a link between the neuropsin pathway and the way mice behaved in a maze. Stressed animals stayed away from open, illuminated zones in the maze where they felt exposed and unsafe. But when their amygdala proteins were blocked, either by drugs or gene manipulation, the mice appeared to become immune to stress.

Dr Pawlak said: “We conclude that the activity of neuropsin and its partners may determine vulnerability to stress. We are tremendously excited about these findings. We know that all members of the neuropsin pathway are present in the human brain. They may play a similar role in humans and further research will be necessary to examine the potential of intervention therapies for controlling stress-induced behaviours."

Time to spring clean... your mind? Scientists say memory lapses can be blamed on too much irrelevant information

By Fiona Macrae, Mail Online
Last updated at 8:00 AM on 21st April 2011

If you struggle to remember names and numbers or frequently fail to follow the plot of a film, help could be at hand. Scientists say the problem is that you know too much – and you need to declutter, or spring-clean your mind.

Experiments show that the memory lapses that come with age are not simply due to brain slowing down. Instead, they can be blamed on the well-used brain finding it more and more difficult to stop irrelevant information interfering with the task in hand.

The first step in the study was to compare the working memory of the young and old. Working memory involves holding information in mind while manipulating it mentally.

Examples in everyday life include retain plots of films and books to understand or predict what will happen next and following the thread of a conversation while working out how you can contribute to the topic.
In the context of the study, it involved giving the volunteers groups of sentences and asking them to work out whether each line made sense – and to remember the last word of each sentence.

Rest: Getting a good night's sleep is just one way to spring clean the mind

Overall, the younger people, who had an average age of 23, did better, the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology reports. The Canadian researchers then did a second experiment to see what was hindering the older volunteers, who had an average age of 67. This involved being shown a pictures of eight animals and being asked to memorise the order in which the creatures appeared. The volunteers were then shown dozens of the pictures and asked to click on their computer mouse when the first animal in their memorised sequence occurred, then the second and so on.

The older adults found it more difficult to progress, suggesting the previous picture was stuck in their mind. Mervin Blair, of Montreal’s Concordia University, said: ‘We found that the older adults had more difficulty in getting rid of previous information. ‘We found that that accounted for a lot of the working memory problems seen in the study.’

A third study confirmed that the memory problems were not simply due to a simple slowing down of the mind. Mr Blair, a PhD candidate, says that the older mind appears to have trouble suppressing irrelevant information. This makes it more difficult to concentrate on the here and now.

Friday, 11 March 2011

World to see biggest full moon in two decades

Wednesday, March 9 04:39 pm

Yahoo!UK News

The world is set to experience the biggest full moon for almost two decades when the satellite reaches its closest point to Earth next weekend. On 19 March, the full moon will appear unusually large in the night sky as it reaches a point in its cycle known as 'lunar perigee'.

Stargazers will be treated to a spectacular view when the moon approaches Earth at a distance of 221,567 miles in its elliptical orbit - the closest it will have passed to our planet since 1992. The full moon could appear up to 14% bigger and 30% brighter in the sky, especially when it rises on the eastern horizon at sunset or is provided with the right atmospheric conditions.

This phenomenon has reportedly heightened concerns about 'supermoons' being linked to extreme weather events - such as earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis. The last time the moon passed close to the Earth was on 10 January 2005, around the time of the Indonesian earthquake that measured 9.0 on the Richter scale.

Hurricane Katrina in 2005 was also associated with an unusually large full moon. Previous supermoons occurred in 1955, 1974 and 1992 - each of these years experienced extreme weather events, killing thousands of people.

However, an expert speaking to Yahoo! News today believes that a larger moon causing weather chaos is a popular misconception. Dr Tim O'Brien, a researcher at the Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics at the University of Manchester, said: "The dangers are really overplayed. You do get a bit higher than average tides than usual along coastlines as a result of the moon's gravitational pull, but nothing so significant that will cause a serious climatic disaster or anything for people to worry about."

But according to Dr Victor Gostin, a Planetary and Environmental Geoscientist at Adelaide University, there may be a link between large-scale earthquakes in places around the equator and new and full moon situations. He said: "This is because the Earth-tides (analogous to ocean tides) may be the final trigger that sets off the earthquake."

Written by Gaby Leslie

http://uk.news.yahoo.com/38/20110309/tsc-world-to-see-biggest-full-moon-in-tw-98fda55.html

Earliest humans were not very different from us

Posted by gp at Wednesday, February 16, 2011

A study from Stony Brook University has suggested that earliest humans were not very different from us. Archaeologist John Shea believes that experts have been focusing on the wrong measurement of early human behaviour - 'behavioural modernity' instead of 'behavioural variability.'

Behavioural modernity is a quality supposedly unique to Homo sapiens, while behavioural variability is a quantitative dimension to the behaviour of all living things. For a long time, the European Upper Paleolithic archaeological record has been the standard against which the behaviour of earlier and non-European humans is compared.

During the Upper Paleolithic (45,000-12,000 years ago), Homo sapiens fossils first appear in Europe together with complex stone tool technology, carved bone tools, complex projectile weapons, advanced techniques for using fire, cave art, beads and other personal adornments.

The same behaviours are either universal or very nearly so among recent humans, leading archaeologists to cite evidence for these behaviours as proof of human behavioural modernity but Shea said that the oldest Homo sapiens fossils occur between 100,000-200,000 years ago in Africa and southern Asia and in contexts lacking clear and consistent evidence for such behavioural modernity.

Archaeologists disagree about the causes, timing, pace, and characteristics of this revolution, but there is a consensus that the behaviour of the earliest Homo sapiens was significantly that of more-recent "modern" humans.

http://www.phenomenica.com/2011/02/earliest-humans-were-not-very-different.html

Saturday, 26 February 2011

Saturday, 22 January 2011

Social networking under fresh attack as tide of cyber-scepticism sweeps US

Twitter and Facebook don't connect people – they isolate them from reality, say a rising number of academics

Paul Harris in New York, guardian.co.uk, Saturday 22 January 2011 21.00 GMT

The way in which people frantically communicate online via Twitter, Facebook and instant messaging can be seen as a form of modern madness, according to a leading American sociologist.

"A behaviour that has become typical may still express the problems that once caused us to see it as pathological," MIT professor Sherry Turkle writes in her new book, Alone Together, which is leading an attack on the information age.

Turkle's book, published in the UK next month, has caused a sensation in America, which is usually more obsessed with the merits of social networking. She appeared last week on Stephen Colbert's late-night comedy show, The Colbert Report. When Turkle said she had been at funerals where people checked their iPhones, Colbert quipped: "We all say goodbye in our own way."

Turkle's thesis is simple: technology is threatening to dominate our lives and make us less human. Under the illusion of allowing us to communicate better, it is actually isolating us from real human interactions in a cyber-reality that is a poor imitation of the real world.

But Turkle's book is far from the only work of its kind. An intellectual backlash in America is calling for a rejection of some of the values and methods of modern communications. "It is a huge backlash. The different kinds of communication that people are using have become something that scares people," said Professor William Kist, an education expert at Kent State University, Ohio.

The list of attacks on social media is a long one and comes from all corners of academia and popular culture. A recent bestseller in the US, The Shallows by Nicholas Carr, suggested that use of the internet was altering the way we think to make us less capable of digesting large and complex amounts of information, such as books and magazine articles. The book was based on an essay that Carr wrote in the Atlantic magazine. It was just as emphatic and was headlined: Is Google Making Us Stupid?

Another strand of thought in the field of cyber-scepticism is found in The Net Delusion, by Evgeny Morozov. He argues that social media has bred a generation of "slacktivists". It has made people lazy and enshrined the illusion that clicking a mouse is a form of activism equal to real world donations of money and time.

Other books include The Dumbest Generation by Emory University professor Mark Bauerlein – in which he claims "the intellectual future of the US looks dim"– and We Have Met the Enemy by Daniel Akst, which describes the problems of self-control in the modern world, of which the proliferation of communication tools is a key component.

The backlash has crossed the Atlantic. In Cyburbia, published in Britain last year, James Harkin surveyed the modern technological world and found some dangerous possibilities. While Harkin was no pure cyber-sceptic, he found many reasons to be worried as well as pleased about the new technological era. Elsewhere, hit film The Social Network has been seen as a thinly veiled attack on the social media generation, suggesting that Facebook was created by people who failed to fit in with the real world.

Turkle's book, however, has sparked the most debate so far. It is a cri de coeur for putting down the BlackBerry, ignoring Facebook and shunning Twitter. "We have invented inspiring and enhancing technologies, yet we have allowed them to diminish us," she writes.

Fellow critics point to numerous incidents to back up their argument. Recently, media coverage of the death in Brighton of Simone Back focused on a suicide note she had posted on Facebook that was seen by many of her 1,048 "friends" on the site. Yet none called for help – instead they traded insults with each other on her Facebook wall.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2011/jan/22/social-networking-cyber-scepticism-twitter

Friday, 21 January 2011

Expert board game players utilise specific brain areas

BBC NEWS Health

21 January 2011 Last updated at 13:06

Scientists have discovered that expert board game players use a part of their brain that amateurs fail to utilise. The research, published in Science, involved scanning the brains of both professional and amateur Japanese "Shogi" players. Shogi is a Japanese game, similar to chess.

Scientists from the RIKEN Brain Science Institute in Japan said that intuitive playing was probably not due to nature, but brain training. Shogi is a very popular game in Japan, played to professional level. Professional players train for up to ten years, three to four hours a day to achieve the level of expertise needed to play professionally.

Intuitive decisions

They are able to make very quick "intuitive" decisions about which move in any combination on the board, would produce the best outcome.

The researchers recruited 30 professional shogi players from the Japanese Shogi Association. They also had a control group of amateur players. The professional players were presented with a game of shogi already in progress and given 2 seconds to choose the next best move - from a choice of four moves. The researchers found that there were significant activations in the caudate nucleus area of the brains of professional players while they were making their quick moves.

Brain activity

In contrast, when amateur players were asked to quickly find the next best move, there was no significant activation in the caudate nucleus. This brain activity was specific to professional players who were making quick decisions about the next best move.

In addition, professionals did not use that area of the brain when they were given a longer time of 8 seconds, to think strategically about further moves they could make. In this scenario, the caudate nucleus area of the brain was not activated.

The caudate nucleus area of the brain was historically thought to be involved with the control of voluntary bodily movements. However more recently it has also been associated with learning and memory.

Research reveals the biochemical connection between music and emotion

January 19, 2011 By Joel N. Shurkin

You are in a concert hall, listening to music you love, Ludwig von Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. You are happily awaiting the glorious climax in the fourth movement -- you know it's coming -- when the full orchestra and chorus erupt with the "Ode to Joy." The moment is here and you are exhilarated, awash in a sudden wave of pleasure.

When music sounds this good, there's a reason: dopamine.

In research published in the journal Nature Neuroscience, scientists at McGill University in Montreal have established the direct link between the elation stimulated by music and the neurotransmitter dopamine. Dopamine is the same substance that puts the joy in sex, the thrill in certain illegal drugs, and the warm feeling within a woman breast-feeding her child. The substance also may explain why the power of music crosses human cultures, the scientists said.

Valorie N. Salimpoor and other researchers in the lab of Robert J. Zatorre took eight subjects and asked them to bring in music they loved. They chose a broad range of instrumental music, from Samuel Barber's Adagio for Strings (the most popular) to jazz and punk. The test used only familiar music, Zatorre said, because he wanted to make sure he was getting a "maximal response." What the subjects had in common was that the music they brought in gave them the "chills," which is actually a technical term for a kind of emotional response. A positron emission tomography, or PET scan, measured dopamine release.

Dopamine is synthesized in the brain out of amino acids and transmits signals from one neuron to another through the circuits of the brain. The structure in the brain Zatorre's team looked at is the striatum, deep inside the forebrain. The striatum has two subparts: the upper, or dorsal, and the ventral below. Zatorre said the dorsal part of the striatum is connected to the regions of the brain involved in prediction and action, while the ventral is connected to the limbic system, the most primitive and ancient part of the brain, where emotions come from. "When you are anticipating, you are engaging the prediction part of the brain; when you feel the chills, that's emotion," Zatorre said, whose team found that the dopamine triggered both parts. According to the McGill research, during the anticipation phase dopamine pours into the dorsal striatum when the climax occurs, triggering a reaction in the ventral striatum that results in a release of pure emotion.

The idea that there was some biochemical reaction involved goes back to the work of the late Leonard B. Meyer in the 1950s. Meyer was a musicologist not a scientist, but he connected music theory with psychology and neuroscience, emotional response to music patterns. He did not know the biochemical mechanism. Great composers don't know it either but play on this process. German composer Gustav Mahler is famous for creating tension that needs resolution, building intensity until the orchestra explodes in a wave of sound.

The listener knows there is going to be an emotional resolution even if the piece is unfamiliar. And, if the listener knows it is coming, the reaction can be even more intense. It turns out, said Zatorre, that Mahler -- and conductors performing his music -- play with the emotions of the audience by manipulating dopamine. "What we're finding is that this is the brain mechanism that underlies this phenomenon," Zatorre said.

http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-01-reveals-biochemical-music-emotion.html

Wednesday, 19 January 2011

Why we have to teleport disbelief

12 January 2011, New Scientist
Magazine issue 2795.

AS THE old saying goes, it's good to have an open mind but not so open that your brains fall out. This week we report claims about the way that DNA behaves that are so astonishing that many minds have already snapped shut.

The experiments (see "Scorn over claim of teleported DNA") make three claims that will stretch most people's credulity: under certain conditions, DNA can project copies of itself onto electromagnetic waves; these same waves can be picked up by pure water and, through quantum effects, create a "nanostructure" in the shape of the original DNA; and if enzymes which replicate DNA are present in a "receiving" solution, they can recreate the original DNA from the teleported "nanostructure", as if DNA was really there.

This scenario inevitably conjures up echoes of the "water memory" experiments in 1988 by the late Jacques Benveniste (New Scientist, 14 July 1988, p 39). Back then, Benveniste reported that antibodies could leave a ghostly "memory" in water that made the water behave as if the antibodies were still there, even in solutions so dilute that no antibody molecules were left. Eventually, his findings were dismissed, as was he.

The main researcher behind the new DNA experiments is a recent Nobel prizewinner, Luc Montagnier. But science should be no respecter of persons, and the researchers we contacted for comment rightly said his results should be ignored unless and until they have been repeated by independent groups. Nobel laureates are not immune from eccentric beliefs. Others believe in telepathy, have communed with fluorescent raccoons, and championed vitamin C as a cure for cancer.

There is also, not surprisingly, suspicion that Montagnier has been misled by contamination - a problem that has so far stymied the hunt for Jurassic DNA and for traces of life in Martian meteorites. Many other experiments have been wrecked by contamination with "impostor" cells.

Given such reasons for doubt, and the hard-to-believe explanations being put forward to account for the claimed effects, should we be reporting Montagnier's work at all? We decided to go ahead because any bona fide experimental result is worthy of scrutiny, and the claims are nothing if not interesting. What's more, the latest paper follows earlier work by Montagnier. Given the remarkable implications of the claims and the relative simplicity of the experiments, other groups will almost certainly take a look and attempt to repeat Montagnier's results. As one researcher told us: "Twenty labs could do this within three months, so we'll soon know whether it's real."

Like many of the researchers we contacted for comment, we won't believe it till someone repeats it. But we do think they should try. As with cold fusion in 1989, heretical findings with far-reaching implications are sometimes worth investigating, even if the chances that there is something to it all are remote. Back then it was harnessing the power of the sun in a test tube; in this case, our picture of infection might need a fundamental overhaul.

It shouldn't take long to find out whether DNA teleportation is mad or miraculous. Either way, it's important to find out.

http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20927951.900-why-we-have-to-teleport-disbelief.html

Extra Sensory Perception: a brief history

The concept of Extra Sensory Perception has been around for more than a century but was only popularised in the 1930s.

The Telegraph, Science News, 10:00PM GMT 06 Jan 2011

1870 – Term 'Extra Sensory Perception' allegedly coined by the British explorer Sir Richard Burton.

1882 – 'Telepathy' – mind reading – formally introduced after research undertaken by the Society of Psychical Research in Britain, and in 1884 by similar organisations in the US.

1892 – Dr Paul Joire, a French researcher used the term ESP to describe the ability of a person who had been hypnotised or was in a trance-like state to sense things without using ordinary senses.

1930s – Duke University psychology JB Rhine popularises the term to denote psychic abilities such as telepathy and clairvoyance. Rhine and his wife Louisa tried to develop research into "parapsychology". They used a set of cards, originally called Zener Cards, now called ESP cards, which bear the symbols of a circle, square, wavy lines, cross and a star. There are five cards of each in a pack of 25. In an experiment, the "sender" looks at a series of cards while the "receiver" guesses the symbols.

Rhine argued that when his subjects scored highly, it could only be expect by chance once in a thousand.

The experiments faced several criticisms, namely that the statistics were not reliable, that only favourable results were published and that "fraud" was possible. Computers are now being used to determine ESP.

1940 – Rhine, JG Pratt and others at Duke author a review of card-guessing experiments conducted since 1882 – 'Extra-Sensory Perception After Sixty Years', which becomes recognised as the first meta-analysis in science. More than 60 per cent of the results indicate the presence of ESP ability.

1953 – Report by Rhine on the ability of dogs to detect landmines through ESP. After a training period of more than three months, two dogs in California successfully found mines six out of seven times without any sensory cues.

1964 – Scientists demonstrate that through use of hypnosis, there is a success rate of 64 per cent.

1971 – Apollo 14 astronaut Edgar Dean Mitchell allegedly conducted secret ESP experiments during the mission with collaborators on Earth. Following 'sleep time' on the ship, he concentrated on a series of symbols and shapes on a clipboard. Four men on Earth tried to 'receive' them.

1974 – Ganzfeld test findings published by Charles Honorton and Sharon harper in the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research. The 30-minute procedure involves two subjects, one the sender and the other the receiver. Both persons lie on chairs, eyes covered with halved ping pong balls so the visual field was solid white. White noise was played in the background. Subjects were asked to free-associate out loud while their responses were put on to a magnetic tape. In another room, the telepathic sender chose at random a set of slides to look at and try to send the subject. After the experiment, the subject was asked to guess which of the reels, of a group of four, had been the target.

1984 – Test results from 10 different laboratories find superior results. Hypnosis proved to enhance ESP ability more than anything else.

1988 – Psychologist Gertrude Schmeidler finds that higher scores are obtained when the experimenter was warmer and friendly to the subject than a cold, formal one. Dr Schmeidler, in her research, also divided subjects into "sheep", who believed ESP might work, and "goats", who did not. Her studies found that "sheep" scores were generally above expectation and "goats" scored below.

2011 – Academic paper argues that people may be able to see into the future to be published by the respected Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Prof Daryl Bem of Cornell University, said the results of nine experiments he carried on students over the past decade suggested humans could accurately predict random events.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/8244695/Extra-Sensory-Perception-a-brief-history.html

ESP Study Gets Published in Scientific Journal

Cornell University Psychologist Daryl Bem Writes Paper on Precognition

By NED POTTER

Jan. 6, 2011

Daryl Bem is a Cornell University psychologist who says he's been doing magic as a hobby since he was 17. Now he has managed what some scientists may call his greatest trick: he's written a paper attempting to prove the power of ESP -- extrasensory perception -- and had it accepted for publication in a major scientific journal. "From seeing my own data, and from looking at other research on ESP, I think I could be classified as someone who now believes there's something there," Bem said in an interview with ABCNews.com.

But the scientific community is filled with grumbles over Bem's work. Many researchers question the wisdom of writing, much less publishing, research on humans' ability to see the future.

Now retired from a long career of mainstream psychological research, Bem says he started looking at ESP for fun, then began to take it more seriously. Over an eight-year period, he says he conducted experiments with more than 1,000 volunteers on "precognition" -- the ability to perceive things before they actually happen -- and submitted it to The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, a peer-reviewed journal published by the American Psychological Association. The reviewers went over it and accepted it for an upcoming issue, despite some initial skepticism.

"It is not my job to decide what hypotheses are good or bad," said Charles Judd, a professor at the University of Colorado who has been serving as the journal's editor. "It's our responsibility to look at papers and give them a fair hearing, even if they fly in the face of conventional wisdom."

Judd provided ABC News with the text of an editorial that will run along with Bem's paper: "We openly admit that the reported findings conflict with our own beliefs about causality and that we find them extremely puzzling," it says in part. "Yet, as editors we were guided by the conviction that this paper — as strange as the findings may be — should be evaluated just as any other manuscript on the basis of rigorous peer review."

http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/extrasensory-perception-scientific-journal-esp-paper-published-cornell/story?id=12556754

Brain biology may dictate social networks

January 4, 2011

(PhysOrg.com) -- A new study by a Northeastern University researcher and her colleagues indicates that the size of a certain part of the human brain plays a significant role in determining the breadth of social relationships. Scientists found that the amygdala, a small structure in the temporal lobe of the brain, appears to be important to a rich and varied social life among adult humans. Their finding, published in the journal Nature Neuroscience, provides insight into how abnormalities in regions of the brain may affect social behavior in neurologic and psychiatric disorders.

The interdisciplinary study, led by Distinguished Professor of Psychology Lisa Feldman Barrett, advances Northeastern’s research mission to solve societal issues with a focus on global challenges in health, security, and sustainability. "We know that primates who live in larger social groups have a larger amygdala, even when controlling for overall brain size and body size," said Barrett. "We considered a single primate species, humans, and found that the amygdala volume positively correlated with the size and complexity of social networks in adult humans."

The researchers asked 58 participants to complete standard questionnaires that reported on the size and the intricacies of their social networks. They measured the number of regular contacts each participant maintained, as well the number of social groups to which these contacts belonged. Participants also had a magnetic resonance imaging brain scan to gather information about various brain structures, including the volume of the amygdala. The authors found that individuals with larger amygdala reported larger and more complex social networks. This link was observed for both older and younger individuals, and for both men and women.

Barrett noted that the study findings are consistent with the "social brain hypothesis," which suggests that the human amygdala might have evolved partially to deal with an increasingly complex social life. Exploratory analysis of other structures deep within the brain indicates that the amygdala is the only area with compelling evidence of affecting social life in humans.

http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-01-brain-biology-dictate-social-networks.html

A gene that could explain why the red mist descends

A "red mist" gene that could be responsible for ordinarily peaceful people becoming violent and aggressive while drunk has been identified by scientists.

By Richard Alleyne, Science Correspondent 7:00PM GMT 22 Dec 2010, The Telegraph

The team of researchers have found a genetic mutation in the brain that may contribute to violently impulsive behaviour under the influence of alcohol.

The researchers sequenced the DNA of a number of impulsive volunteers and compared those sequences with DNA from an equal number of non-impulsive people. They found that a single DNA change that blocks a gene known as HTR2B was predictive of highly impulsive behaviour.

The gene affects serotonin production and detection in the brain.Serotonin is a neurotransmitter known to influence many behaviours, including impulsivity.

"Interestingly, we found that the genetic variant alone was insufficient to cause people to act in such ways," said Dr David Goldman at National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism in Maryland, USA. "Carriers of the HTR2B variant who had committed impulsive crimes were male, and all had become violent only while drunk from alcohol, which itself leads to behavioural disinhibition."

In collaboration with researchers in Finland and France, Dr Goldman and colleagues studied a sample of violent criminal offenders in Finland. The hallmark of the violent crimes committed by individuals in the study sample was that they were spontaneous and purposeless.

They found the association with HTR2B gene and then conducted studies in mice and found that when the equivalent gene is knocked out or turned off, mice also become more impulsive. A report of the findings is published in Nature.

"Impulsivity, or action without foresight, is a factor in many pathological behaviours including suicide, aggression, and addiction," said Dr Goldman. "But it is also a trait that can be of value if a quick decision must be made or in situations where risk-taking is favoured."

Related Articles

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/8219521/A-gene-that-could-explain-why-the-red-mist-descends.html

Brain is not fully mature until 30s and 40s

December 22, 2010 by Lin Edwards

(PhysOrg.com) -- New research from the UK shows the brain continues to develop after childhood and puberty, and is not fully developed until people are well into their 30s and 40s. The findings contradict current theories that the brain matures much earlier.

Professor Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, a neuroscientist with the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience at University College London, said until around a decade ago many scientists had "pretty much assumed that the human brain stopped developing in early childhood," but recent research has found that many regions of the brain continue to develop for a long time afterwards.

The prefrontal cortex is the region at the front of the brain just behind the forehead, and is an area of the brain that undergoes the longest period of development. It is an important area of the brain for high cognitive functions such as planning and decision-making, and it is also a key area for social behavior, social awareness, for empathy and understanding and interacting with other people, and various personality traits. Prof. Blakemore said the prefrontal cortex “is the part of the brain that makes us human,” since there is such a strong link between this area of the brain and a person’s personality.

Prof. Blakemore said brain scans show the prefrontal cortex continues to change shape as people reach their 30s and up to their late 40s. She said the region begins to change in early childhood and then is reorganized in late adolescence but continues to change after that. The research could explain why adults sometimes act like teenagers, sulking or having tantrums if they do not get their own way, and why some people remain socially uncomfortable until they are well out of their teens.

http://www.physorg.com/news/2010-12-brain-fully-mature-30s-40s.html

DNA Can Be Influenced And Reprogrammed By Words And Frequencies - Russian DNA Discoveries

By Grazyna Fosar and Franz Bludorf
Sunday, 19 December 2010 10:47

The human DNA is a biological Internet and superior in many aspects to the artificial one. The latest Russian scientific research directly or indirectly explains phenomena such as clairvoyance, intuition, spontaneous and remote acts of healing, self healing, affirmation techniques, unusual light/auras around people (namely spiritual masters), the mind’s influence on weather patterns and much more.

In addition, there is evidence for a whole new type of medicine in which DNA can be influenced and reprogrammed by words and frequencies WITHOUT cutting out and replacing single genes.'

Read more: DNA is Influenced by Words and Frequencies

Irreducible Mind: Toward a Psychology for the 21st Century [Paperback]

by Edward F. Kelly, Emily Williams Kelly, Adam Crabtree, Michael Grosso, Bruce Greyson

Practically every contemporary mainstream scientist presumes that all aspects of mind are generated by brain activity. We demonstrate the inadequacy of this picture by assembling evidence for a variety of empirical phenomena which it cannot explain. We further show that an alternative picture developed by F. W. H. Myers and William James successfully accommodates these phenomena, ratifies the common sense view of ourselves as causally effective conscious agents, and is fully compatible with contemporary physics and neuroscience.

Multiple Man: Explorations in Possession and Multiple Personality

by Adam Crabtree, Introduction by Colin Wilson

Possession and multiple personality have up to now been seen as aberrations of the human mind - the frightening experiences of a few unfortunate victims. This book suggests that multiple personality may be a form of multiple consciousness which we all experience and that possession may be much more widespread than has been believed. Working from new clinical data and an analysis of the history of possession and multiple personality, the author calls for a re-examination of how the mind of both the "healthy" and the "ill" individual works.

He suggests that these experiences, rather than being considered bizarre anomolies, should be seen as teaching us important truths about the inner nature of the human psyche. Adam Crabtree is a Canadian psychotherapist. He is founder and director of Willow Workshops, whose programme includes both educational and therapeutic programmes.

The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind [Paperback]
Julian Jaynes

Review by an Amazon Customer
Sadly neglected now, this path-finding study of consciousness uses the latest mapping of the brain (from car crash victims, etc.) to speculate on how self-conscious individuals emerged from tribal group-think. Perhaps the most astonishing fact deployed by Jaynes is that the brain has a back-up speech centre that can be used for re-learning to speak after the active centre has been destroyed. What is this second speech centre for? Why is it mute? Did it once serve a group-think purpose, such a voice-of-divine-monarch-in-head? Jaynes has a long look at the earliest evidence, drawn from so-called Homer's Iliad. This section should be obligatory reading for all students of literature and history. Possibly, it will be one day, when humans have evolved a little further.

Jaynes delves into anthropology, psychology, ontology and pathology to produce a theory of the mind that, once studied and considered, is never forgotten. This book is a penetrating contribution to the great, probably uncrackable, mystery of how language came to be. Regrettably, few people ever give it much thought. Until they do, this stimulating work will remain marginal. It deserves to be read and discussed by students everywhere.

Origins of Psychic Phenomena: Poltergeists, Incubi, Succubi, and the Unconscious Mind [Paperback] Stan Gooch

Alien abduction, poltergeist attacks, incubi, succubi, split and multiple personalities, possessions, precognition, spontaneous combustion - the list of phenomena not just unexplained but ignored by mainstream science seems endless. Yet the key to the origin of all these manifestations lies deep within our own brains. In "The Origins of Psychic Phenomena", Stan Gooch explores the functioning of the dream-producing part of the brain - the cerebellum - and how the unconscious mind is able to externalise itself.

The cerebellum is the physical seat of the unconscious and was once equal, or even superior to, the cerebrum as essential to our functioning. In modern times it has been shunted into the subliminal - yet the cerebellum continues to process our worldly experiences and reveals its concerns in misunderstood, often frightening, manifestations. Gooch explains that Neanderthal Man possessed a much larger cerebellum than Cro-Magnon Man and posits that the modern repression of the cerebellum's role in our consciousness has given rise to these supernatural phenomena.

It explores how the unconscious mind manifests paranormal phenomena; shows how the cerebellum - the seat of the unconscious -is the source of these energies, sub-personalities, and manifestations; and identifies our neglected "Neanderthal" subconscious as responsible for the rising incidence of paranormal happenings.

Violent games not to blame for youth aggression: new study

December 14, 2010

How depressed young people are strongly predicts how aggressive and violent they may be or may become. Contrary to popular belief, however, exposure to violence in video games or on television is not related to serious acts of youth aggression or violence among Hispanics in the US, according to new research by Dr. Christopher Ferguson from Texas A&M International University. His findings are published online in Springer's Journal of Youth and Adolescence.

The potential negative effects of violent video games on adolescent antisocial behavior, and youth violence in particular, is a highly debated issue, both in academic circles and among the general public and policy makers. However, to date, the research is inconclusive largely due to methodological problems.

Ferguson recruited 302 mainly Hispanic youth between the ages of 10 and 14 years, from a small Hispanic-majority city population on the border of Mexico, as part of a larger study of youth violence. They were interviewed twice – once at the start of the study and again 12 months later.

Ferguson looked at their exposure to violence both in video games and on television as well as negative life events, including neighborhood problems, negative relationships with adults, antisocial personality, family attachment, and delinquent peers. He also assessed the styles of family interaction and communication, adolescents' exposure to domestic violence, depressive symptoms, serious aggression, bullying and delinquent behavior.

His analyses show that 75 percent of young people played video games within the past month on computers, consoles or other devices, and 40 percent played games with violent content. Boys were more likely than girls to play violent games. One year later, 7 percent reported engaging in at least one criminally violent act during the previous 12 months, the most common being physical assaults on other students or using physical force to take an object or money from another person. Nineteen percent reported engaging in at least one nonviolent crime during the same period, with shoplifting and thefts on school property at the top of the list.

In addition, Ferguson found that depressive symptoms were a strong predictor for youth aggression and rule breaking, and their influence was particularly severe for those who had preexisting antisocial personality traits. However, neither exposure to violence from video games or television at the start of the study predicted aggressive behavior in young people or rule-breaking at 12 months.

Ferguson concludes: "Depressive symptoms stand out as particularly strong predictors of youth violence and aggression, and therefore current levels of depression may be a key variable of interest in the prevention of serious aggression in youth. The current study finds no evidence to support a long-term relationship between video game violence use and subsequent aggression. Even though the debate over violent video games and youth violence will continue, it must do so with restraint."

More information: Ferguson CJ (2010). Video games and youth violence: a prospective analysis in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence; DOI: 10.1007/s10964-010-9610-x

http://www.physorg.com/news/2010-12-violent-games-blame-youth-aggression.html

Email has turned us into 'lab rats'

Email has turned office workers into no more than lab rats desperately craving “pellets of social interaction”, a leading expert has claimed.

A recent study found that British office workers look at their email inboxes at least 30 times an hour

By Nick Collins 6:30AM GMT 07 Dec 2010, The Telegraph

Increasing levels of information overload from computer and smart phone screens cause a “bottleneck” in the brain and prevent any deep thought, according to Nicholas Carr, former executive editor of the Harvard Business Review.

His comments add to the weight of evidence that our addiction to technology and the snippets of information it provides is damaging our ability to apply our power of thought in a meaningful way. Mr Carr, a former business of the Harvard Business Review, whose books include The Shallows: What The Internet Is Doing To Our Brains, said email exploits a basic human instinct to search for new information, causing us to become addicted to our inboxes.

The natural impulses that helped early humans find food and avoid predators are causing us to regress to a state no more sophisticated than a rat in a laboratory, he said.

A recent study found that British office workers look at their email inboxes at least 30 times an hour. For each bit of new information we find our brain releases a dose of dopamine, a pleasure-inducing chemical which has been linked to addictive behaviour.

Mr Carr told Esquire magazine: “Our gadgets have turned us into hi-tech lab rats, mindlessly pressing levers in the hope of receiving a pellet of social or intellectual nourishment. What makes digital messages all the more compelling is their uncertainty. There’s always the possibility that something important is waiting for us in our inbox …[which] overwhelms our knowledge that most online missives are trivial.”

Scientists fear that divided attention could damage the thought process and the ability to concentrate, and possibly lead to irrational behaviour. Earlier this year Eric Schmidt, chief executive of Google, expressed his concerns that “instantaneous devices” could be having an impact on the thought process. He said: “I worry that the level of interruption, the sort of overwhelming rapidity of information – and especially of stressful information – is in fact affecting cognition, affecting deep thinking.”

Mr Carr said the abundance of information we are exposed to through various screens “gets in the way of deep thinking” and “obstructs understanding, impedes the formation of memories and makes learning more difficult”.

He explained: “When we take in too much data too quickly, as we do skipping between links, our working memory gets swamped. We suffer from what brain scientists call cognitive overload.” This results in us retaining very little information and failing to connect what we do remember to experiences stored in our long-term memory, meaning our thoughts are “thin and scattered”.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/8184149/Email-has-turned-us-into-lab-rats.html

Study reveals 'secret ingredient' in religion that makes people happier

December 7, 2010

While the positive correlation between religiosity and life satisfaction has long been known, a new study in the December issue of the American Sociological Review reveals religion's "secret ingredient" that makes people happier.

"Our study offers compelling evidence that it is the social aspects of religion rather than theology or spirituality that leads to life satisfaction," said Chaeyoon Lim, an assistant professor of sociology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, who led the study. "In particular, we find that friendships built in religious congregations are the secret ingredient in religion that makes people happier."

In their study, "Religion, Social Networks, and Life Satisfaction," Lim and co-author Robert D. Putnam, the Malkin Professor of Public Policy at Harvard University, use data from the Faith Matters Study, a panel survey of a representative sample of U.S. adults in 2006 and 2007. The panel survey was discussed in detail in the recently published book American Grace by Putnam and David E. Campbell.

According to the study, 33 percent of people who attend religious services every week and have three to five close friends in their congregation report that they are "extremely satisfied" with their lives. "Extremely satisfied" is defined as a 10 on a scale ranging from 1 to 10.

In comparison, only 19 percent of people who attend religious services weekly, but who have no close friends in their congregation report that they are extremely satisfied. On the other hand, 23 percent of people who attend religious services only several times a year, but who have three to five close friends in their congregation are extremely satisfied with their lives. Finally, 19 percent of people who never attend religious services, and therefore have no friends from congregation, say they are extremely satisfied with their lives.

"To me, the evidence substantiates that it is not really going to church and listening to sermons or praying that makes people happier, but making church-based friends and building intimate social networks there," Lim said. According to Lim, people like to feel that they belong. "One of the important functions of religion is to give people a sense of belonging to a moral community based on religious faith," he said. "This community, however, could be abstract and remote unless one has an intimate circle of friends who share a similar identity. The friends in one's congregation thus make the religious community real and tangible, and strengthen one's sense of belonging to the community."

The study's findings are applicable to the three main Christian traditions (Mainline Protestant, Evangelical Protestant, and Catholic). "We also find similar patterns among Jews and Mormons, even with a much smaller sample size," said Lim, who noted that there were not enough Muslims or Buddhists in the data set to test the model for those groups.

http://www.physorg.com/news/2010-12-reveals-secret-ingredient-religion-people.html

Ostracism, Social influence

Kipling Williams

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Kipling D. Williams is a social psychologist in the Department of Psychological Science at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana.^[1] He graduated from Ohio State University in 1981 with his Ph.D in Social Psychology. Currently, he is a professor of psychological sciences and is the associate editor of the Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. He is most notable for his research on ostracism, developing unique methods to study the processes and consequences.

Dr. Williams has conducted research in several areas, including aggression, group processes and close relationships. However, he has specific research topics that include ostracism, social loafing and social compensation, internet research, stealing thunder, which is a specific tactic used to deflate any negative impact of changing a person’s testimony, law and psychology.

Dr. Williams has a primary interest in social influence. In addition, he has contributed to publications in both the field of psychology and in the field of law, which deal with issues of different realms of social influence. Some of these realms of social influence concern eyewitness memory and testimony, biasing judges’ instructions, and most recently, on influencing jurors to scrutinize confidence inflation in court cases. However, Dr. Williams’ interests mostly include group processes and social influence. His main research interest is on ostracism, which includes the effects of one being excluded and ignored in society. While some people regard this as simple group research, he regards it as a phenomenon of very basic social influence. He believes that an individual’s emotions, subsequent social susceptibility, and motivations are all impacted when that person is ostracized.

Dr. Williams believes that “social influence is of great importance to his self-definition and to his interest in social psychology.”^[2] Simply put, he believes that “the heart of social psychology is social influence.”^[2] He has a free downloadable program called “Cyberball,” which can be used in research to study issues that surround social exclusion. Dr. Williams has contributed to different psychological articles and he has also written several different books related to his psychological interests.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kipling_Williams

Website for Dr Kipling Williams
http://williams.socialpsychology.org/#overview

Scapegoating, Abuse and One-Upmanship

Scapegoating

Process in which the mechanisms of projection or displacement are utilized in focusing feelings of aggression, hostility, frustration, etc., upon another individual or group; the amount of blame being unwarranted.

Links on Scapegoating at: http://www.birchmore.org/html/scapegoat_links.html

One-upmanship The art of maintaining a psychological advantage

Could it be that circumstances often contribute towards people behaving in ways that we, or even they, find abhorrent ? If we don't check ourselves or if external checks and balances are not effective, could more of us extend ordinary behaviour to extremes?

It would be good to know more about how various societies manage their problems and bad feelings, devise their laws, rituals and practices. Groups or cultures settle on a form of consensus for handling situations, and it does seem that scapegoating often plays a role in how difficulties, tensions or feelings are handled - to the point of taking them out on someone else!

Humans display a variety of behaviours in differing circumstances, but some people behave as though they have more 'rights' than others. They may be physically stronger, better at academic work, at gaining people's confidence, or are wealthier. It is not a universal constant but worthy of scrutiny as a sometime hypothesis. There can be strength in numbers and people may align themselves with a group or ideology so as not to be alone and vulnerable.

When people are weaker or vulnerable they are naturally placed for being a victim or 'the other' to some victor. This could be one reason why children get chosen for a scapegoating role in an emotional or physical sense. If someone is in a strong position for bargaining or standing up for themselves, they may pre-empt scapegoating. But children are not naturally placed for that and it is hard for them. They may be taken advantage of rather than protected, and if they speak about abuses they may also suffer not being believed. People may genuinely not believe them, or it is 'inconvenient' and they duck out, or they feel they can't do anything. We are not trying to cause conflict or difficulty for anyone but suggesting concepts bridging the gap between abuses' which clearly should not happen, and what may be done to understand and bring about changes.

We cannot help but wonder whether this is an aspect of child abuse, and we don't wish to offend anyone who has experienced this and feels differently because of what happened to them. It could be worth considering with regard to abuse by multi-perpetrators, to organised and sadistic abuse or ritualistic abuse. (There are some general comments on Cults and Ritual Abuse or SRA on this Link.) One would need to look at reasons both above and below the surface and at a wide cultural field. But do the stronger of our species take things out on the weaker, simply because they can - and nothing stops it?

At the risk of over-generalisation, is it that no-one wants to be powerless or at the bottom of some heap? Why people try to ensure it cannot happen to them if they sacrifice others to a lower role? Is it innate in human behaviour, arising from a suspicion that there must be a victor who should be us rather than 'the other' and we need to reinforce that? Is it a throwback to some feudal or tribal system affecting us more than we'd like to think?

Disbelief or denial do not mean people don't actually want to know about things, but they may find it hard to think of as human behaviour - for it is not humane. When children or others speak about what happened they meet a wall of the bricks and mortar of disbelief or denial, and a sense of inertia or powerlessness to change things. We can chisel away at it individually or in groups.

Territorial aspects of behaviour: wanting to acquire possessions, to control our lives or environment including other people whether in the family, neighbourhood or workplace. People often talk as though it is they who have the say or the power and others cannot affect them. It becomes very hard for those who are powerless or at mercy of others to stand up for themselves and be believed, which is the basic principle behind advocacy or having a 'friend at court' for moral support.

Status quo seems relevant to some extent. In workplaces or walking round shops, see how much of the day is spent reinforcing the prestige of some people, whether as a formal status or more psychological. The Samaritans and Joseph Rowntree Foundation have published on the subject of increasing bullying in the workplace. Have you seen people reinforcing their status quo via phone calls on the bus or train? Tim Field's Bully Online site is at www.bullyonline.org

Projection or some specific or vague mechanism of manic defence could be part of the picture depending on the preferred frame of reference.

Scapegoating, territoriality, or putting others down also seem inherent in many Human Rights issues and abuses. Perhaps a reason for the need for relevant legislation is an attempt to lessen injustices for more people in their lives as a general principle.

People often help themselves and others without recourse to 'experts'. People living through war or other traumatic times may not have access to help, and it is a relatively recent development that people look more to others to guide them. We are not attempting to devalue good help, rather to say that people may manage better than they think without it, and help of the not-so-good kind is just what the term implies! But it may be that the kind of help is not suitable for the person or at that time, or that the counsellor or therapist just does not suit an individual which is no-one's fault.

On these pages you will also see a reference to Cults which is relevant in the sense of how people can get caught up in ways of belief or behaviour. This is not always a bad thing but can be destructive and hard to overcome, and this affects people differently. Something that gets shrugged off by some people is devastating for others and takes a long time for recovery, so it helps if people around them understand and support.

You may feel you want to talk things through with someone to help gain insight or come to terms with something, but try to weigh that up against getting talked into something. Casualties from the process of therapy and counselling ideally should be zero, which is not to say that it is an easy process to undergo.

A general trend towards therapy or counselling can lead to an increasing number of individuals believing they are somehow inadequate or in need of a specific approach. But no-one has all the 'answers' and no-one has them for you! Your circumstances may be such that you somehow feel inadequate as a person, but that is all a part of being human.

Some people may be using a mal-adaptive or extreme form of ordinary behaviour as an insurance against their own vulnerability. Therapists and counsellors are not immune from some of the defence mechanisms that anyone may make use of at times, but they need to be aware of how those may affect them.

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